Mafia in America

Lynching Facts - Mafia in America

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The American Mafia (also known as American Cosa Nostra or Italian-American Mafia) is an Italian American criminal community and offshoot of the Sicilian Mafia. It emerged on the East Coast of the United States while the late 19th century following waves of Sicilian and Southern Italian emigration.

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Lynching Facts

Many Sicilians and other Italians, who were tired of living in the horrible conditions of Italy where practically everybody was below the poverty line and was treated with contempt by the government, began emigrating to the United States in the 1800s with the dreams of the exquisite American life. There was a sudden spurt of Italians emigrating to the U.S. while the early 20th Century. While most of the Italians worked hard to earn their daily bread straight through legal means, some of them brought the ways of the Sicilian Mafia with them.

The American Mafia continues to dominate organized crime in the U.Sand maintains operate over much of Chicago's, Boston, Philadelphia, Providence and New York City's organized criminal activity, as well as criminal activities in many other cities in the North-East and over the country, such as Las Vegas and New Orleans. The Mafia and its reputation have come to be entrenched in American beloved culture, and have been portrayed in movies, tv shows, books and video games.

The Italian American Cosa Nostra is most active in the New York metropolitan area, Philadelphia, New England (see the Patriarca crime family), Detroit (see the Detroit Partnership), and Chicago (see the Chicago Outfit), but there are unquestionably colse to 26 Cosa Nostra family cities colse to the United States, with many more offshoot and splinter groups as well as company in other cities.

Mafia groups in the United States first became active in the New York City, moderately progressing from small neighborhood operations in poor Italian ghettos to citywide and eventually international activities. The American Mafia started with "La Mano Nera" or the "The Black Hand", extorting Italians (and other immigrants) colse to New York city. Black Hand gangsters would threaten them by mail if their extortion demands were not met. The threats were sometimes marked with a hand-print in black ink at the bottom of the page. As more Sicilian gangsters began immigrating to the America, they vast their criminal activities from extortion to loan-sharking, prostitution, drugs and alcohol, robbery, kidnapping, and murder. Many poor Italian immigrants embraced the Mafia as a potential way of gaining power and rising out of the poverty and anti-Italianism they experienced in America.

Giuseppe Esposito was the first known Sicilian Mafia member to emigrate to the United States. He and six other Sicilian Mafioso fled to New York after murdering eleven wealthy landowners as well as the chancellor and a vice chancellor of a Sicilian province. He was arrested in New Orleans in 1881 and extradited to Italy.

New Orleans was also the site of the first Mafia incident in the United States that received both national and international attention. On October 25, 1890, New Orleans Police Superintendent David Hennessey was murdered execution-style. It is still unclear whether Italian immigrants unquestionably killed him or whether it was a frame-up against the feated and hated underclass immigrants by racists. Hundreds of Sicilians were arrested on mostly baseless charges, and nineteen were eventually indicted for the murder. An acquittal followed, with rumors of bribed and intimidated witnesses. The outraged citizens of New Orleans organized a lynch mob and proceeded to kill eleven of the nineteen defendants. Two were hanged, nine were shot, and the remaining eight escaped. The lynching was the largest mass lynching in American history.

Mafia activities were more-or-less itsybitsy until 1920, when they vast because of the introduction of the prohibition. The Prohibition banned the selling of alcoholic beverages. The Mafia exploited this law and began to sell alcohol to the American population. Alcohol was very beloved and as a corollary the law was very unpopular and resented. This led to huge profits for the Mafia and so their power and influence increased drastically too.

By the end of the 1920s, two factions of organized crime had emerged, causing the Castellamarese war for operate of organized crime in New York City. With the killing of Joseph Masseria, the leader of one of the factions, the war ended uniting the two sides back into one society now called Cosa Nostra. Salvatore Maranzano, the first leader of American Mafia, was himself killed within six months and Charles "Lucky" Luciano became the new leader. Maranzano had established the code of conduct for the organization, set up the "family" divisions and structure, and established procedures for resolving disputes. Luciano set up the "Commission" to rule their activities. The Commission included bosses from six or seven families.

In the year 1951, a U.S. Senate Committee, led by Democratic Tennessee Senator Estes Kefauver, carefully that a "sinister criminal organization", which had ties with the Ussr, also known as the Mafia operated in and colse to the United States. There was, however, no evidence which recommend that the Ussr worked with the American Mafia.

In the year 1957, the New York State Police uncovered a major meeting of many foremost American Cosa Nostra figures from colse to the country in the small upstate town of Apalachin. This convention has come to be preeminent as the Apalachin Conference. Most of the attendees were arrested and this event was the conjecture which changed the way law obligation battles organized crime.

In the year 1963, Joseph Valachi became the first American Cosa Nostra member who broke the Omerta to furnish a detailed look at the inside of the organization. Having been recruited by the Fbi and testifying before the Us Senate McClellan Committee, he exposed the name, structure, power bases, codes, swearing-in ceremony, and members of this organization. All of this had been hidden up to this point.

Today, Cosa Nostra is involved in a broad spectrum of illegal activities. These include murder, extortion, drug trafficking, corruption of group officials, gambling, infiltration of legitimate businesses, labor racketeering, loan sharking, prostitution, pornography, tax fraud schemes, and most notably today, stock manipulation schemes.

By the mid-20th century, the Mafia was reputed to have infiltrated most of the labor unions in the United States, predominantly the Teamsters, whose president Jimmy Hoffa disappeared and is widely believed to have been murdered by Mateo Bari, enforcer for the Cleveland crime family. In the 1980s, the United States federal government made a carefully effort to remove Mafia influence from labor unions.

The Mafia had eventually vast to twenty-six crime families nationwide in the major cities of the United States, with the town of organized crime based in New York and its surrounding areas. After many turf wars, the Five Families ended up dominating New York, named after foremost early members: the Bonanno family, the Colombo family, the Gambino family, the Genovese family, and the Lucchese family. These families held hidden conferences with other mafia notables like Joe Porrello from Cleveland, and other gang leaders, such as Al Capone.

The American Mafia's organizational structure and system of operate were created by Salvatore Maranzano (who became the first "capo di tutti capi" in the Us, though he was killed after retention the position for only six months, by Lucky Luciano).

Each faction was headed by a caporegime, who reported to the boss. When the boss made a decision, he never issued orders directly to the soldiers who would carry it out, but instead passed instructions down straight through the chain of command. In this way, the higher levels of the society were effectively insulated from incrimination if a lower level member should be captured by law enforcement. They furnish what the intelligence community calls plausible deniability.

The initiation ritual emerged from various sources, such as Roman Catholic confraternities and Masonic Lodges in the mid-nineteenth century Sicily and has hardly changed to this day. The Chief of Police of Palermo in 1875 reported that the man of honor to be initiated would be led into the nearnessy of a group of bosses and underbosses. One of these men would prick the initiate's arm or hand and tell him to smear the blood onto a sacred image, normally a saint. The oath of loyalty would be taken as the image was burned and scattered, thus symbolising the annihilation of traitors. This was confirmed by the first pentito, Tommaso Buscetta.

A hit, or assassination, of a "made" man had to be preapproved by the leadership of his family, or retaliatory hits would be made, possibly inciting a war. In a state of war, families would go to the mattresses - rent vacant apartments and have a number of soldiers sleeping on mattresses on the floor in shifts, with the others ready at the windows to fire at members of rival families.

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Lorraine Hansberry, The First Major Black Theatrical Voice to Emerge From America

Facts Segregation Jim Crow Laws - Lorraine Hansberry, The First Major Black Theatrical Voice to Emerge From America

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Lorraine Vivian Hansberry born May 19, 1930 in Chicago, Illinois as the youngest of four children of a foremost real estate broker Carl Augustus Hansberry and Nannie Louise Perry grew up on the south side of Chicago in the Woodlawn neighborhood.in a middle-class family.. The roots of her artistic foresight and activism are here in Chicago.

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Facts Segregation Jim Crow Laws

Born into a house of broad means and parents who were intellectuals and activists, her father, Carl Augustus Hansberry, Sr. From Gloucester, Mississippi, moved to Chicago after attending Alcorn College, and became known as the "kitchenette king" after subdividing large homes vacated by whites intriguing to the suburbs and selling these small apartments or kitchenettes to African American migrants from the South.

Carl was not only a successful real estate businessman,but an inventor and a politician as well being an active member of the Republican Party who ran for congress in 1940. Hansberry's mother, Nannie Perry, the college educated daughter of an African Methodist Episcopal minister,who became a schoolteacher and, later, ward committeewoman, was from Tennessee. At the time of Lorraine's birth, she had come to be an influential society matron who hosted major cultural and literary figures

Both parents were activists intriguing discriminating Jim Crow Laws. Because of their stature in the black society such foremost black leaders as Paul Robeson, W.E.B. DuBois, Joe Louis and Langston Hughes frequented their home as Lorraine was growing up.

Lorraine's uncle, Willliam Leo Hansberry, a Howard University professor of African history in D.C. Who taught there until 1959 after rejecting employment offers from Atlanta University and the Honorable Marcus Garvey was an additional one foremost work on on her. As a master of African history who taught at Howard University, his students included some of the most decisive figures in African nationalism such as Kwame Nkrumah first president of Ghana and Nnamdi Azikwe, the first Nigerian president. So foremost was he to Africa especially that a college at the University of Nigeria was named in his honor. While Lorraine was growing up she was frequently exposed to the perspectives of such young African students who were commonly invited home to house dinners.

Although they could afford good underground schools, Lorraine was educated in the segregated communal schools as her house worked within the system to convert the laws governing segregation. At an early age she learned to fight white supremacy. She had grown disgusted of looking Negroes being spat at, cursed and pummeled with insults and bodily acts of violence.

In protest against the segregation laws her parents sent her to communal schools rather than underground ones. She attended Betsy Ross Elementary School and then in 1944 Englewood High School where she encountered the children of the working class whose independence courage and struggles which would soon come to be the field of her first major play she came to admire. Both schools were predominately white. Lorraine even had to fight racism from the day she walked straight through the doors of Betsy Ross Elementary School. Although she and her siblings enjoyed privileges unknown to their working-class schoolmates, the parents infused their children with racial pride and civic responsibility. They founded the Hansberry Foundation, an organization designed to forewarn African Americans of their civil rights, and encouraged their children to challenge the exclusionary policies of local restaurants and stores.

When Lorraine was eight, her parents moved the whole house to occupy a house they had bought in a restricted all-white neighborhood in an additional one endeavor to defy the segregation law then prevalent. Such white neighborhoods excluded African Americans straight through the then widely used restrictive covenants. . There they faced racial discrimination Their home was vandalized on any occasions.at night by racist mobs. Carl Hansberry, while resisting such attacks on his home and house from neighborhood hoodlums, took his case to court in order to remain there.

As Lorraine Hansberry's parents fought against segregation, armed guards protected her and her siblings. But at one point a slab of concrete almost crushed Lorraine.

In 1940 the U.S. Consummate Court ruled restrictive covenants unconstitutional in a case that came to be known as Hansberry v. Lee, although it did limited to work on the actual custom of segregated housing in Chicago. Though victors in the Illinois Consummate Court, Hansberry's house was subjected to a "hellishly hostile white neighborhood."

This caress was what later inspired her writing of her most famed work, A Raisin in the Sun. Carl A. Hansberry later contributed large sums of money to Naacp and the urban league. Unfortunately he died in 1946 before he could perfect plans to move his house to Mexico City when Lorraine's two brothers had difficulties accommodating to segregation in the U.S. Army.

Hansberry's interest in Africa began at an early age. In an unfinished, partly autobiographical novel Hansberry wrote: "In her emotions she was sprung from the Southern Zulu and the Central Pygmy, the Eastern Watusi and the treacherous slave-trading Western Ashanti themselves. She was Kikuyu and Masai, antique cousins of hers had made the perfect forged statue at Benin, while literally even more antique relatives sat upon the throne at Abu Simbel watching over the Nile..."

She broke the house tradition of enrolling in Southern Negro Colleges and enrolled in the University of Wisconsin at Madison, where she majored in painting. She was soon to examine that her talent lay in writing not art. After two years she decided to leave the University of Wisconsin for New York City, a predominantly white university, to study journalism, but was equally attracted to the optical arts which she also studied at the University of Wisconsin and in Guadalajara Mexico.

She integrated an all-white women's dormitory and became active in the campus episode of the Young Progressive Association, a national left-wing trainee organization, serving as its president during her sophomore year and later the Labor Youth League.

Seeing a intriguing school execution of Sean O'Casey's Juno and the Paycock, inspired her imagination and precipitated both her participation in trainee theater and her study of the works of contemporary masters such as Henrik Ibsen and August Strindberg. Juno which is about the problems of a poor urban house in Dublin in 1922 during the early disagreement between the Irish Republican Army and the British occupying troops is what is supposed to have inspired her to think of creating a comparable work about an African American family. She thus decided to come to be a writer and to capture the authentic voice of the African American working class.

Hansberry ended up staying for only two years, at the University of Wisconsin from 1948 to 1950. For she never felt complex in her whole academic life, but surface of class she fell in love with the theater and began forming her radical political beliefs. Living off campus because housing was unavailable in 1948 for black students, Hansberry commuted each day to attend classes in literature, history, philosophy, art, mathematics, and science. Excited by her humanities classes and bored by the sciences, Hansberry balanced A's and F's to mouth the bare minimum median to remain in school. surface of class, she developed a collection of interests.

In the fall term of her second year, Hansberry became campus chairman of the Young Progressives of America in retain of Henry Wallace's 1948 candidacy. Upon his defeat, she grew disaffected with party politics but continued to enjoy her friendships with African students and a amount of young campus radicals. Her network of friends in Wisconsin would later come to be the material for a section of her unfinished autobiographical novel All the Dark and gorgeous Warriors.

But communal and racial obstacles stood in the path of her success at the University of Wisconsin. In a theater class on set produce in her second year, for example, she received a D from a professor who determined her work above median but who said he did not want to encourage a young black woman to enter a white-dominated field. In 1950, Hansberry left the university headed for New York. After two years she found it to be non-inspiring and moved to New York to pursue her career.

She took classes in writing at the New School for communal investigate and at Freedom, a progressive black newspaper founded by Paul Robeson which she described as "the journal to Negro liberation, from 1950 to 1953. As a staff writer for the periodical leisure over the next three years, Hansberry wrote on Africa, women, New York communal issues, and the arts. She traveled widely on assignment for the magazine, surface the U.S., Africa, and South America. While writing on communal inequities in New York City, Hansberry developed into an "intellectual revolutionary."

She studied art at Roosevelt University, summer 1950. She wrote articles for the Young Progressives of America magazine. Meanwhile, her writing skills improved. "Shuttling about the city--from the Waldorf-Astoria to Broadway back to Harlem schools--Lorraine Hansberry sharpened her journalistic tools. She learned to interview easily. She started to sift foremost figures from mazes of paper and began to penetrate the facades of habitancy and events. She soon became associate editor, working intimately with Louis Burnham, who in time became her mentor.

In 1952, she substituted Robeson who could not get his passport from the U.S. State group at a controversial, international peace seminar in Montevideo, Uruguay. At the congress she met politically astute feminists from all over the world. Subsequently she spoke at communal rallies and meetings, often criticising U.S. Policy.

Hansberry's relationship with leisure settled her in the midst of Harlem's rich cultural, artistic, and political life. She studied African Culture and History with W.E.B. DuBois at the Jefferson School for communal Sciences in New York. She read avidly and widely in African American history and culture, politics, philosophy, and the arts. She was especially influenced by the works of W. E. B. Du Bois, Frederick Douglass, William Shakespeare, and Langston Hughes.

During that time she took part in liberal causes. She met among others the famed writer Langston Hughes. When she was completing a seminar on African history under W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963), she wrote a investigate paper on 'The Belgian Congo: A first report on Its Land, Its History and Its People.'

While a journalist for Freedom, Hansberry also developed communal speaking skills by teaching classes at Frederick Douglass School in Harlem and by attending and speaking at political rallies.

While participating in a demonstration protesting the exclusion of black players from the basketball team at New York University in 1951, she met Robert Barron Nemiroff, a Jewish literature student, songwriter, writer and activist, son of progressive Russian Jewish immigrants. Having earned his master's degree four months earlier at New York University, he had begun writing a book on Theodore Dreiser, which had been the topic for his thesis.

The young concentrate moved to Greenwich community where Hansberry became intimately complex with a amount of the liberal causes of the period. She began to write extensively about the habitancy and lifestyles that she observed colse to her. She was already an experienced writer and editor, having published articles, essays, and poetry in Freedom, New Challenge, and other leftist magazines.

Hansberry worked for a while in the Greenwich community bistro owned by Nemiroff's family. The two developed a close emotional and intellectual relationship, and on June 20, 1953, they were married.. The night before their wedding they joined a protest against the execution of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for espionage.

After leaving leisure in 1953 to concentrate on her writing, Hansberry worked at assorted odd jobs together with tagger in the garment industry, typist, waitress, cashier, agenda director at Camp Unity (an interracial summer camp), , secretary, recreation leader for the physically disabled, and educator at the Marxist-oriented Jefferson School for communal Science and occasional contributor for leisure before it went bankrupt in 1955 during the following few years. After a series of part-time jobs, Hansberry settled down to the writing of a play. When her husband co-wrote "Cindy Oh Cindy" (1956), a ballad that became an instant hit, Nemiroff gained success. He and a friend, Burt D'Lugoff, wrote it together and Hansberry suggested the title, The song earned them 0,000 in 1956. This wage freed both Hansberry and Nemiroff to write full time.

Nemiroff wrote a play, Postmark Zero, performed on Broadway in 1965, while Hansberry wrote a amount of works, together with A Raisin in the Sun, The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window, which was produced in 1964, and any more in between Hansberry now devoted herself entirely to writing. So in that same 1956 she quit working at her part time jobs and devoted all her time to her writing. Her full energies were now turned to a play about a struggling, working-class black family, like the families who rented her father's properties on Chicago's South Side-A Raisin in the Sun.

Nemiroff, meanwhile, having graduated with his master's degree from Nyu became first a reader and copywriter for Sears Readers' Club and later promotions director of Avon Books. Together they absorbed the rich cultural ambience of Greenwich Village, remained active on picket lines and at all-night vigils for desegregation, and enjoyed the company of friends. Hansberry would later write about these times in her play The Sign in Sidney Brustein's Window.

A t that time she wrote A Raisin in the Sun which was ended in 1957 and on March 11, opened at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre in New York City with a run of 530 performances. The play was a huge success.

It was the first play written by an African-American woman and produced on Broadway. It won the New York Drama Critics Circle Award making Hansberry the youngest and first African American to receive the Award. .

Hansberry was named "most promising playwright" of the season by Variety's poll of New York drama critics. She ended the film version of A Raisin in the Sun in 1961 starring Sidney Pointier, Claudia McNeil and Ruby Dee. In 1961 the film version opened. Hansberry won a special award at the Cannes Film Festival and was nominated for a Screen Writer's Guild Award for her screenplay. A second television adaptation of the play was aired in 1989 starring Danny Glover, Esther Rolle, and Kim Yancey. Hansberry in this play portrayed individuals - not only black - who defend their own and other's dignity. In writing A Raisin in the Sun Lorraine instilled her values of equality ... Hans berry's purpose was to show "the many gradations in even one Negro family." The characters suffer, hope, dream, and triumph over the broad barriers erected by the dominant culture.

Celebrated drama critic Brook Atkinson wrote: "She has told the inner as well as the outer truths about a Negro house in Chicago. The play has vigor as well as veracity and is likely to destroy the complacency of anyone who sees it." The output catapulted Hansberry into the forefront of the theatre world.

"All art is ultimately social: that which agitates and that which prepares the mind for slumber," she once said."... In order for a man to bear his life, he needs a valid re-creation of that life, which is why, as Ray Charles might put it, blacks chose to sing the blues. This is why Raisin in the Sun meant so much to black habitancy - on the stage: the film is an additional one matter. In the theater, a current flowed back and forth between the audience and the actors, flesh and blood corroborating flesh and blood - as we say, testifying... The root seminar of the play is literally far more subtle than either its detractors or the bulk of its admirers were able to see." (James Baldwin in The Devil Finds Work, 1976)

The working title of A Raisin in the Sun was originally 'The Crystal Stair' after a line in a poem by Langston Hughes. The new title was from an additional one Langston Hughes poem, which asked: "What happens to a dream deferred? / Does it dry up like a raisin in the sun, / Or does it explode?" The play was later renamed A Raisin in the Sun taking its title from a line in Langston Hughes' poem What happens to a dream deferred? Does it dry up Like a raisin in the sun? Or fester like a sore- And then run? Does it stink like rotten meat? / Or crust and sugar over- Like a syrupy sweet? Maybe it just sags Like a heavy load. Or does it explode

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The Segregation in America (by: PEEJAY)

Crow Laws - The Segregation in America (by: PEEJAY)

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Hbcus - Relevant and principal in 21st Century America

Jim Crow Laws Facts - Hbcus - Relevant and principal in 21st Century America

Good morning. Today, I learned all about Jim Crow Laws Facts - Hbcus - Relevant and principal in 21st Century America. Which may be very helpful if you ask me and you. Hbcus - Relevant and principal in 21st Century America

Hbcus (Historically Black Colleges and Universities) have played a vital role in the history of U.S. Schooling even though some critics exertion to marginalize their vast accomplishments. At the same time, even though some of these critics also ask their relevance in 21st century America, Hbcus are as vital and principal as ever.

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Jim Crow Laws Facts

When the first Hbcus were founded prior to the Civil War (1861-1865) - Cheney State University, (originally the make for Colored Youth which was established after Richard Humphreys (1750-1832), a Quaker philanthropist moved by the 1829 race riots in Philadelphia, Pa bequeathed ,000 (1/10 of his estate) to generate a school for "the descendants of the African race"), the first Hbcu, in Philadelphia in 1837, Lincoln University (originally Ashmun Institute) near Philadelphia in 1854 (by John Miller Dickey (1806-1878), a Presbyterian Minister) as the first Hbcu to provide a higher Schooling in arts and sciences for Black males, and Wilberforce, the first hidden Hbcu at an hidden railroad stop (to free fleeing slaves from the "bondage of ignorance") in Wilberforce (founded by members of the Methodist Episcopal Church and named after 18th century abolitionist William Wilberforce (1759-1833)), Ohio in 1856, "it was illegal to teach Blacks to read and write" since literate Blacks were viewed as "dangerous" to society.[1]

Consequently, prior to the start of the Civil War, the Black illiteracy rate exceeded 95% with a majority of literate Blacks concentrated in the Northeast. Furthermore, due to an absence of schools to address their intellectual needs, just about every pre-Civil War era literate Black had been self-taught.

Following the Civil War, the first Hbcu era (1865-1915) began when laws prohibiting Black Schooling were rescinded. The amount of Hbcus exploded even though ambivalence and outright hostility (translated into Jim Crow racial segregation laws that were enacted in 1876 and remained entrenched until 1965) remained in the defeated South.

With an spectacular, ask for Schooling by emancipated slaves and their families (when still intact) who were barred from attending White institutions, along with a vast majority in the North (until the 1950s and 1960s), Hbcus (established by churches, missionary groups, and philanthropists) embarked on perhaps the most educational transformation in history. Out of the previously enslaved citizen of greater than 4 million, per Kenneth Ng, Wealth Redistribution, Race and Southern communal Schools, 1880-1910 (Education policy diagnosis Archives 13 May 2001), "Black educational achievement was substantial." Black literacy increased to 10% by 1880, 50% by 1910, and 70% by 1915. Inspecting Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) establishing the "Separate but equal" doctrine, which in reality resulted in Blacks attending dual, inferior, under funded segregated schools, and the intensive Southern racial laws of the era, the achievement much in part due to Hbcu efforts was miraculous - in Ng's words, "an accomplishment seldom witnessed in human history."

The spectacular, rise in Black literacy was primarily due to Hbcus rather than or in conjunction with the elementary and secondary schools established under Plessy v. Ferguson. Prior to the 20th century, many Hbcus had to provide elementary and secondary Schooling and college prep-type courses before students were able to pursue a college degree with some focused only on Black males (e.g. Morehouse College founded in Atlanta, Ga in 1867, the alma mater of Nobel Peace Prize recipient and Civil rights Leader Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968)) and others only on Black females (e.g. Spelman College founded in a church basement in Atlanta, Ga in 1881 that was recently ranked #1 in a poll on "social mobility because of its impressive 77% graduation rate). Hbcus ordinarily did not pursue sole post secondary Schooling until after 1900. Per President George H.W. Bush in January 1991, "At a time when many schools barred their doors to black Americans, these colleges offered the best, and often the only, occasion for a higher education."

Following the principal advances in Black literacy, the second Hbcu era (1916-1969) focused on creating a Black expert and middle class. Their efforts, though met serious obstacles. Few Blacks had the financial resources to apply these professionals and fewer Whites were concerned in their services. During this time period to ensure Blacks could realize economic benefits from their degrees, Hbcus, per Ronald Roach, Celebrating the History And Contributions of Black Colleges (Black Issues, 21 October 2004) shifted their focus from liberal arts to commercial and vocational Schooling after inviting debates in the middle of educator, author, orator Booker T. Washington (1856-1915), (a Hampton University (Hampton, Va) graduate and past President of Tuskegee University) who believed the best occasion for Blacks to "attain equality... Was through the accumulation of power, wealth, and respect by means of hard work in practical [vocational] trades" and sociologist, author, historian W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963) who believed that "equality and sense of purpose would only come if talented Blacks were allowed to study the arts and sciences" in increasing to vocational trades.[2]

Ironically, though, the prosperous culmination of the Civil rights movement in 1968 that earned Blacks the right to vote, broke down the barriers of segregation and offered prominent protections against racial discrimination and new opportunities, nothing else but threatened Hbcus prominent to their third era (one of threats to their viability and even survival, despite government aid through Title Iii of the Higher Schooling Act of 1965) as enrollment as a division of Blacks plunged. From 1965-1969 almost 80%-99% of Blacks were enrolled in Hbcus. From 1970-2010 less than 10% of Blacks are enrolled in Hbcus with many taking benefit of desegregated communal and hidden Institutions, community Colleges, and two-year institutions.

This era of decline, financial hardship (especially among non-State supported institutions), and transition in which some became (e.g. West Virginia State University) or are becoming majority White institutions, not surprisingly, brought about debates about the relevance and even continued need for Hbcus, their mission and focus and even their relevance in 21st Century America. The fact though remains - Hbcus are as principal and relevant as ever with a continued principal role to ensure, because it is imperative that, in the words of U.S. Senator Barbara Mikulski (D-Md) as recounted in Dr. E. Lee Lassiter's, Coppin's Hbcu Role Chosen for a National Salute narrative dated September 1, 2006, "all our children have a occasion to succeed, and in making sure they have the 21st century skills and... Reasoning for 21st century jobs."

With every demographic group with the exception of Whites and Asians regressing in terms of generational scholastic achievement, it is principal that Hbcus focus on minority education. Per John Silvanus Wilson, Jr., America's Historically Black Colleges and Universities and the Third Transformation (The Presidency. The American Council of Education. Winter 2010) generational scholastic achievement among all races barely improved with 35.5% of all individuals 25-29 gaining a college degree vs. 34.9% of all persons 30 and older (propelled much in part to Asians - 66.3% of 25-29 year-olds vs. 54.5% of 30+ year-olds and Whites - 41.8% of 25-29 year-olds vs. 38.0% of 30+ year-olds). The numbers ranged from disappointing to dismal when it came to Blacks, Hispanics, and American Indians. Blacks suffered the least erosion with 24.3% of 25-29 year-olds earning a college degree vs. 24.6% of the 30+ age group. 16.8% of Hispanics 25-29 years-old earned a college degree vs. 18.1% of those 30+ and only 16.3% of American Indians (a target group educated by Hbcus led by Hampton University's preparation of a formal educational program geared towards their needs in 1878) in the 25-29 age bracket earned a college degree vs. The 21.7% shape for those 30 and older.

Second, according to the U.S. Branch of Schooling Office for Civil Rights, more than 80% of Blacks who earned degrees in dentistry and treatment attended two Hbcus (Howard University, Washington, D.C. And Meharry healing College, Nashville, Tn) specializing in these fields. Presently both schools list for 19.7% of all healing and dentistry degrees awarded to Black students. In addition, Hbcus have accounted for training of 75% of Black officers in the U.S. Armed Forces, 75% of Blacks with PhDs, 80% of Blacks retention federal judgeship positions, and 50% of Black faculty members teaching at traditionally White institutions.

Third, Hbcus continue to be at the forefront of Black students earning degrees in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (Stem), which is especially principal since degrees in Stem fields (which are principal if the United States is to remain contentious in a global, technology-driven economy), have declined significantly over the last 10 years (by as much as 22%-26% for students receiving bachelor degrees in computer science and math) with 70% of increase of 18-24 year-olds pursuing these fields comprised of minority students (including a 19% increase attributed to Black Americans of that age group) as stated in Fueling Schooling Reform: Historically Black Colleges Are Meeting a National Science Imperative by Steve Suitts (Southern Schooling Foundation, Atlanta, Ga, July 3, 2003), and rank high with regard to students who pursue graduate and post-doctoral training. With this in mind, an era of revival for Hbcus is likely contingent upon their emphasis on Stem subjects.

Additional advantages offered are smaller class size than ready at primary universities (providing a more personalized experience), community service opportunities (e.g. Mentoring elementary, middle school, and high school students and assisting charitable organizations) that enrich both students and community members, and opportunities for graduate school and human resources recruiters searching for, in the words of Jeff McGuire, The Historical Black College & University: choosing the right historic black college for you (College View, 18 December 2009), "diversity and talent they are unable to find elsewhere."

A final prominent reason that Hbcus preserve their principal roles is their distinct atmosphere and deeper focus on African-American and minority cultural and historical contributions and the fact that they provide minorities (many of whom experienced discrimination or inequality During some part of their lives, along with those born in the post Civil rights era along with the 1980s and 1990s) with greater self-esteem because of the wide-range of socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds they come from and through the availability of preserve and remediation/retention networks when they experience scholastic challenges. In the words of Cedar Lawrence, a recruiter at Fort Valley State University (Fort Valley, Ga) Hbcus provide an atmosphere where they can be "very open to discussing the issues facing citizen of color... Solutions to make things better" in a house atmosphere without worrying about "what citizen think of race" and/or other stereotypes.

In conclusion, Hbcus are relevant and principal in 21st Century America. With their policy offerings in the Stem fields, smaller class size, remedial/retention/support networks, diversity and openness, Hbcus are principal not only for urban America but every community of today's and tomorrow's knowledge-based technological society. Hbcus are principal to ensure equal occasion and a inviting future for students of all races especially since their continued efforts and contributions proactively address socioeconomic obstacles that could discourage and intellectually and finally psychologically and economically set back entire races. The rich, past history of Hbcus clearly demonstrates that they remain a potent equalizer to ensure each dream, regardless of economic class and race, have at a minimum, a realistic possibility of being achieved.

[1] Lakisha Heard. Illiteracy among African Americans. 18 December 2009. Http://www.oppapers.com/essays/African-American-Literacy/261112

[2] The History of Historically Black Colleges and Universities: A Tradition rich in history. College View. 18 December 2009. [http://www.collegeview.com/articles/Cv/hbcu/hbcu_history.html]

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